Mini Assignment: Making a Medieval Manuscript

Watch the video below and answer the questions about medieval manuscripts.

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Transcript:

In the Middle Ages, parchment was used to make the pages of books. Parchment was made from the skins of animals, and the transition from a fresh skin to a surface suitable for writing was a slow and labor-intensive process.

The parchment maker selected skins of sheep, goats, or calves. These skins were soaked in limewater for three to ten days to loosen the animals’ hair. The hair and any remaining flesh were then scraped away. Afterward, the skin was soaked in fresh water to remove the lime and stretched tightly on a frame. Using a special rounded knife, the parchment maker scraped the hide to the desired thickness. This scraping process continued over several days, during which the tension on the frame was repeatedly tightened as the skin dried. The result was parchment, a smooth and durable material that could last for more than a thousand years.

Before parchment could be written on, it had to be specially prepared. The surface was rubbed with pumice powder to roughen it and then dusted with a sticky powder, making it receptive to inks and colors. The finished skin was cut down to the size needed for a particular book. Large manuscripts were assembled from sheets nearly as large as a single skin, while smaller books used skins cut into two or more pieces. The parchment sheets were folded and nested to form gatherings, usually consisting of sixteen or twenty pages.

Writing

The vibrant illuminations in medieval manuscripts often overshadow the text, yet the writing itself was equally important. The scribe—the person who copied the text—used simple tools. Pens, called quills, were made from bird feathers that were soaked in water, dried, and hardened with heated sand. The scribe carved the quill to a rough point, cut a slit to draw ink down, and then trimmed the tip to the proper width. The shape of the quill varied depending on the style of lettering.

Scribes made ink from various materials. Gallnuts, growths found on oak trees, were commonly used to produce a dark black ink. Another black ink, known as lamp black, was made by dissolving a carbon substance. Before writing, the scribe ruled the parchment with a straightedge. Medieval scribes and their patrons valued regularity and elegance in script. If a mistake was made, the scribe could scratch it out with a penknife. Because parchment was resilient, it could withstand many such erasures.

Illumination

An illuminator decorated manuscript pages using paint and precious metals, beginning only after the scribe had finished copying the text. The illuminator first sketched the design and then added details such as facial features or interlacing patterns in decorated initials. Thin sheets of precious metal, most often gold leaf, were always applied first.

To attach the gold leaf, the illuminator laid down a base coat made of either a plaster-like substance called gesso or a gum. Once the base dried, the moisture from the illuminator’s breath was enough to make the gold leaf adhere to the page. Excess gold was brushed away and the remaining leaf polished. After the gold leaf was applied, the illuminator painted the design. Colors were made from vegetable dyes or ground minerals dissolved in liquid. Pale shades were applied first, followed by darker tones. Black outlines and delicate white highlights completed the illumination.

Binding

After the parchment pages had been written and decorated, the manuscript was bound. Groups of folded sheets, called gatherings, were sewn together with strong linen thread onto flexible supports such as narrow leather thongs. End bands were then attached to secure the top and bottom of the pages at the spine.

The binder laced the leather thongs through channels carved into wooden boards, which served as the manuscript’s covers. The thongs were held in place with wooden pegs or iron nails, and the volume was usually covered in leather. Because parchment expands and contracts with changes in temperature and humidity, pressure was needed to keep the pages flat. This was provided by clasps or straps that held the book closed.

Bindings could be decorated in a variety of ways. Manuscripts might be covered with leather stamped or tooled with gold, or with silks or velvets. The most elaborate bindings featured sculpted decorations made from precious metals. The materials used depended on the wealth of the patron, the type of manuscript, and its intended use.