When we look at art, one of the first things we often do is evaluate the image based on how "real" it looks. Many viewers often judge the quality of a work of art by the ability of the artist to render their subject realistically. As we will learn, however, there are many different reasons why an artist may or may not chose to render a subject in a realistic manner. In some cases, artists chose not to create images of recognizable things at all!

Painting, sculpture, and other art forms can be divided into the stylistic categories of representational (sometimes also called figurative art, although it doesn’t always contain figures), abstract and nonobjective or nonrepresentational art. Representational art describes artworks—particularly paintings and sculptures–that are clearly derived from real object sources, and therefore are by definition representing something with strong visual references to the real world. Abstract art is based on imagery from the real world, but the image may be distorted or simplified. The most “extreme” form of abstract art is not connected to the visible world and is known as nonobjective or nonrepresentational.

Representational Imagery - Naturalistic vs. Abstract

Representational imagery or figurative art represents objects or events in the real world. For example, the oil painting, First Communion, pictured below by a fifteen-year-old Pablo Picasso, illustrates an image of a girl in a church surrounded by other people. This painting is representational because we can clearly see this painting is about real world objects, places and things. Picasso painted this artwork in a naturalistic style, meaning the objects and places depicted in this artwork appear more-or-less how they would in the real world.

Painting of a little girl in a church taking communion. An abstract image of a woman holding a fan.

(l) Pablo Picasso, First Communion. 1895. Oil on canvas, 65 x 46.” (Public Domain). (r) Pablo Picasso, Seated Woman Holding a Fan. 1908. Oil on canvas, 59 x 39” (Public Domain).

The other image by Picasso, Seated Woman Holding a Fan, is also a representational image. However, instead of being naturalistic, it is abstract. Abstract images are images that have been simplified, distorted or removed from reality. The woman and her surrounding are not naturalistic, they are highly abstract, however, this image is still considered to be representational because the artist has clearly painted an image of a woman holding a fan.

Cartoon image of a boy and dog. Image created by George Neal.

Cartoon image of a boy and dog. Image created by George Neal.

Many cartoons fall into this category of being abstract but still considered to be representational. The cartoon dog in the image above does not look at all like a real dog. His head is large and out of proportion to his body. His fur lacks surface detail and textures, and he is surrounded by a think bold outline. However, we still recognize this image as a dog. The boy standing next to him, likewise, does not look like an actual child, however, he still represents one.

Naturalistic Style

Naturalistic style uses recognizable images with a high level of accuracy in their depiction. Naturalism also includes the idealized object: one that is modified to achieve a kind of perfection within the bounds of aesthetics and form. William Sydney Mount’s painting The Bone Player gives accuracy in its representation and a sense of character to the figure, from his ragged-edged hat to the button missing from his vest. Mount treats the musician’s portrait with a sensitive hand, more idealized by his handsome features and soft smile.

The image below is, also, representational. Representational images depict forms derived from the natural world in a manner that they are recognizable.

Image of a man playing hand percussion.

(l) The Bone Player, William Sidney Mount, 1856. Oil on canvas. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Image in the public domain. (r) Henry Fuseli. Trompe-l'oeil, 1750. Oil on canvas. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.

Trompe l'oeil (French for 'fool the eye') is a form of naturalistic representational art that trys to trick the viewer into thinking they are seeing a real three-dimensional object instead of a flat painting. The Swiss artist Henry Fusel creates the three-dimensional illusion of a piece of paper pined to a wood board through his use of shadow in painting above on the right by appropriately titled Trompe l'oeil,

Abstract Style

An abstract style is based on a recognizable object, which is then manipulated by distortion, scale issues, or other artistic devices. Abstraction can be created by exaggerating form, simplifying shapes, or using strong colors. Because an image is abstract, does not mean it is not also representational.

Let's look at two landscapes with varying degrees of abstraction in them to see how this style can be so effective. In the first one, Paul Cezanne uses abstraction to give his view of Mount Sainte-Victoire a sense of stillness and monumentality. Notice how the colors of the painting are simplified into mostly shades of greens and blues. The chunky, unrefined brushstrokes give the landscape a blocky, unfinished quality. The artwork is clearly depicting a landscape, in a way that is mostly naturalistic, however the simplified forms and colors render the depiction somewhat abstractly.

A mountain Pink and green mountains reflecting on the water.

Montagne Saint-victoire, Paul Cezanne, about 1890. Pastel on paper. Musee d'Orsay, Paris. Image in the public domain
Lake George Reflection, Georgia O'Keefe, about 1887. Pastel on paper. Image in the public domain

Georgia O’Keeffe’s Lake George Reflection employs abstraction to turn the painting into a colorful landscape dominated by saturated greens, pinks and blues. The artist's use of overly saturated colors and simplified, organic shape reduces this landscape to its barest essentials. The effect distill the mountains reflecting on the water to its basic elements. Although the painting is still representational in that it presents the viewer with an image of what is clearly a mountain and a lake, the painting is highly abstract.

It’s important to note the definition of ‘abstract’ is relative to cultural perspective. That is, different cultures develop traditional forms and styles of art they understand within the context of their own culture (see ‘Cultural Styles’ below), and which are difficult for other cultures to understand. So what may be ‘abstract’ to one could be more ‘realistic’ in style to another. For example, the Roman bust of Sappho below looks very real from a western European aesthetic perspective. Under the same perspective, the African mask would be called ‘abstract’.

(l) Roman bust of Sappho. Capitoline Museum, Rome. Image in the public domain. (r) African mask photo by Cezary. Image in the public domain.

Yet to the African culture that produced the mask it would appear more realistic. In addition, the African mask shares some formal attributes with the Tlingit ‘Groundhog Mask’ (below under ‘Cultural styles’) from Canada’s west coast. It’s very possible these two cultures would see the Roman bust as the ‘abstract’ one. So it’s important that we understand artworks from cultures other than our own in the context in which they were originally created.

Chuck Close's "Fanny/Fingerpainting"

Close, Chuck. Fanny/Fingerpainting, 1985. Oil on canvas. 102 x 84 x 2 1/2 in.

Questions of abstraction can also emerge from something as simple as our distance from an artwork. View and read about Fanny/Fingerpainting by the artist Chuck Close. At first glance it is a highly realistic portrait of the artist’s grandmother-in law. You can zoom it in to see how the painting dissolves into a grid of individual fingerprints, a process that renders the surface very abstract. With this in mind, we can see how any work of art is essentially made of smaller abstract parts that, when seen together, make up a coherent whole.

Abstraction is, also, used in cartoons as a way of creating characters that are instantly recognizable, easy to reproduce and capable of displaying exaggerated emotion. Mickey Mouse, as he appears in the early animated film Steamboat Willie, is a very abstracted depiction of a mouse. His features are distorted and simplified beyond those of any real mouse, and yet he is still recognizable as a rodent. It is this abstraction that make the character so amusing and understandable, however. If Mickey were rendered as a realistic mouse, his actions and behavior would be less believable and relatable. Ironically, it is the character's lack of realism which makes him more appealing.

Mickey Mouse whistling.

Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks, Steamboat Willie, 1928. Image in the public domain

Nonobjective

An art work that does not depict anything from the real world (figures, landscapes, animals, etc.) is called nonobjective or nonrepresentational. Nonobjective art may simply depict shapes, colors, lines, etc., but may also express things that are not visible– emotions or feelings for example. The painting below by Elaine de Kooning entitled, Man Hiding, is a good example of this. The artist is not depicting a representational image of a man in hiding. However, she has tried to capture the anxiety and fear of someone trying to conceal themselves through the use of nervous, intense brushstrokes to evoke the emotional intensity of someone hiding.

Nonobjective painting of thick brushstrokes.

**Elain de Kooning, Man Hiding, 1956. Oil on canvas.** Michelle Hevrdejs collection. Palm Springs Art Museum. Photo by Rob Corder. CC BY-NC 2.0

Robert Delaunay’s work is a primary example of early nonobjective art. Nonobjective art bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable from the real world. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities. Figurative art and nonobjective art are almost mutually exclusive. But representational (or realistic) art often contains partial abstraction. As you see, these terms are bit confusing, but do your best to understand the basic definitions of representational, abstract and nonrepresentational.

(l) Robert Delaunay, Le Premier Disque, 1913. Work is in the public domain. (r) 70s Room created by George Neal, CC BY-NC 4.0.

Nonobjective design is often used in the decorative arts. The 1970s style wallpaper in the image above is completely nonobjective. However, simply because it is nonobjective doesn't mean that it is meaningless or that we cannot relate to it. Some of you will find the pattern and color ugly, while others might see them as beautiful. Some might feel the 1970s style design evokes a certain nostalgic feeling of home, while others might think of it as antiquated, old-fashioned and ugly.

Degrees of Abstraction and Naturalism - Iconic vs. Pure Abstraction

Most images exist on a spectrum of abstraction and naturalism. The sculpture pictured below is by the Artist Duane Hanson. Hanson was known for creating hyperrealistic sculptures of his subjects. His sculptures are so lifelike, it can sometimes be difficult to determine which figures are sculptures and which ones are real people, when visiting a Hanson exhibition.

Hyperrealistic sculpture of a housepainter.

Duane Hanson, Housepainter III, 1984/88. Autobody filler, polychromed, mixed media, accessories; life-size. Hanson Collection. By Roy Katzenberg. CC BY 2.0

Iconic Abstraction

Most artworks and images are usually not so naturalistic that a viewer would mistake an artwork for a real person. Most images and artworks exist on a level of abstraction. The comic artist Scott McCloud in his foundational book Understanding Comics, described the various ways meaning and abstraction interact. Below you will see a series of images. On the left is the sculpture of the house painter. To the left you will see the images become more and more abstract. Even though the image of the housepainter becomes more simplified, and distorted, the inherent representational meaning hasn't changed. In other words, the realistic sculpture on the left represents a housepainter, while the cartoonish face on the far right also represents the same thing! This is known as iconic abstraction, meaning the object or image retains its representational meaning as it becomes more abstract.

Illustration of iconic abstraction. Drawing by George Neal. CC BY-NC 4.0

Pure Abstraction

However, if the original image is abstracted in a way that it loses its representational meaning, that is called pure abstraction. If you look at the image below, you will notice that the images are become more simplified and distorted in a way that the original representational meaning "housepainter" is now lost. The final image does not even resemble a human being, much less the house painter pictured in the first image.

Scott McCLoud use a pyramidto explain the differences between Iconic and Pure abstraction. I have used images of faces to illustrate the different levels of Pure and Iconic Abstraction. You will notice that in the bottom left of the pyramid, we have our image of Hanson's Housepainter. The image is hyper-realistic. As we move to the bottom right, you will see images becoming less naturalistic and more abstract. However, the images are still recognizable as faces. If we look upwards, you will see the images becoming more abstract, however, they become so distorted towards the top that they are not recognized as faces.

A pyramid containing many images at different levels of abstraction.

Level of abstraction, like many things, exist on a spectrum. You will notice that the majority of the images exist somewhere between pure abstraction and iconic abstraction. The images towards the top, however become harder to understand as representational images, while the images that are categorized in the lower portions of the pyramid remain recognizable.

Style

We have been spending considerable time examining different kinds of styles - naturalistic, abstract, nonobjective, etc. But we need to as ourselves "what is style?" Style refers to a particular kind of appearance in works of art. It’s a consistent set of characteristics used by an individual artist, culture or artistic movement.

Artistic Styles

Artists create art with their own unique styles. For instance, the Spanish Renaissance painter, El Greco (born Domenikos Theotokopoulos). Although El Greco worked during the time of the Renaissance, his style was much different than his contemporaries. El Greco was know for painting elongated figures with odd proportions in emotional poses, with twisting and turning bodies. He often used exaggerated and saturated colors, which gave his paintings an otherworldly appearance. If we look at three works by El Greco side-by-side, we can see his unique style emerge. We can see his consistent use of elongated figures, his bold use of color and the dramatic, serpentine poses of his characters.

(l) El Greco. The Adoration of the Shepherds, circa 1612–1614. Oil on canvas. Museo del Prado. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. (m) El Greco. Laocoön, between 1610 and 1614. Oil on canvas. National Gallery of Art. (r) El Greco. The Holy Trinity, between circa 1577 and circa 1579. Oil on canvas. Museo del Prado.

Art historians can uses stylistic analysis to help identify an artist's work if little to no other information is available. We can also use an analysis of style to determine which period of an artist's life a particular work was made, as many artists tend to develop and change their style over time.

Cultural Styles

Below are two artworks depicting the same subject. The woodcut print on the left was created by the Japanese Edo period artist, Kitagawa Utamaro during the late 18th century. The image on the right was created by the late 19th century French Impressionist artist, Edgar Degas. Even though the subject is of a woman getting her hair brushed, the styles are very different. Utumaro's style is much more abstract. The shapes are flattened into broad areas of white, the patterns of the women's kimono's appear flat and two-dimensional against their bodies, and their facial features are simple contour lines. In the more naturalistic image on the right by Degas, we can see the artists use of chiaroscuro to give the figures the illusion of depth, and the right color of the surrounding room contrasts with the flat void of Utamaro's image. Even with little artistic knowledge, it is not difficult to determine that these two artworks are from different cultures. This is evident not only in the style in which the artworks were made, but, also in clothing and background details depicted in the artworks.

A Japanese Edo era depicting of a woman getting her hair brushed contrasted with a French Impressionist painting of the same subject.

(l) Kitagawa Utamaro, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. (r) Edgar Degas, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Cultural styles refer to distinctive characteristics in artworks throughout a particular society or culture. Some main elements of cultural styles are recurring motifs, created in the same way by many artists. Cultural styles are formed over hundreds or even thousands of years and help define cultural identity. We can find evidence of this by comparing two masks; one from Alaska and the other from Canada. The Yup'ik dance mask from Alaska is quite stylized with oval and rounded forms divided by wide bands in strong relief. The painted areas outline or follow shapes. Carved objects are attached to the mask and give an upward movement to the whole artwork while the face itself carries an animated expression.

By comparison, a ‘Groundhog Mask’ from the Tlingit culture in coastal northwestern Canada exhibits similar forms and many of the same motifs. The mouths of each mask are particularly similar to each other. Groundhog’s visage takes on human – like characteristics just as the Yup’ik mask takes the form of a bird. This cultural style ranges from western Alaska to northern Canada.

(l) Ground Hog Mask,Tlingit, c. 19th century. Carved and painted wood, animal hair. Collection the Burke Museum, University of Washington, Seattle. Used by permission. (r) Page from the Book of Kells, around 800 CE. Trinity College, Dublin.
Image in the public domain.

Celtic art from Great Britain and Ireland shows a cultural style that’s been identified for thousands of years. Its highly refined organic motifs include spirals, plant forms and zoomorphism. Intricate and decorative, the Celtic style adapted to include early book illustration. The Book of Kells is considered the pinnacle of this cultural style.

Formal Analysis

While restricting our attention only to a description of the formal elements of an artwork may at first seem limited or even tedious, a careful and methodical examination of the physical components of an artwork is an important first step in “decoding” its meaning. It is useful, therefore, to begin at the beginning. There are four aspects of a formal analysis: description, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation. In addition to defining these terms, we will look at examples.

Description

What can we notice at first glance about a work of art? Is it two-dimensional or three-dimen-sional? What is the medium? What kinds of actions were required in its production? How big is the work? What are the elements of design used within it?

Starting with line: is it soft or hard, jagged or straight, expressive or mechanical? How is line being used to describe space?

Considering shape: are the shapes large or small, hard-edged or soft? What is the relationship between shapes? Do they compete with one another for prominence? What shapes are in front? Which ones fade into the background?

Indicating mass and volume: if two-dimensional, what means if any are used to give the illusion that the presented forms have weight and occupy space? If three-dimensional, what space is occupied or filled by the work? What is the mass of the work?

Organizing space: does the artist use perspective? If so, what kind? If the work uses linear perspective, where are the horizon line and vanishing point(s) located?

On texture: how is texture being used? Is it actual or implied texture?

In terms of color: what kinds of colors are used? Is there a color scheme? Is the image overall light, medium, or dark?

Analysis

Once the elements of the artwork have been identified, next come questions of how these elements are related. How are the elements arranged? In other words, how have principles of design been employed?

What elements in the work were used to create unity and provide variety? How have the elements been used to do so?

What is the scale of the work? Is it larger or smaller than what it represents (if it does depict someone or something)? Are the elements within the work in proportion to one another?

Is the work symmetrically or asymmetrically balanced?

What is used within the artwork to create emphasis? Where are the areas of emphasis? How has movement been conveyed in the work, for example, through line or placement of figures?

Are there any elements within the work that create rhythm? Are any shapes or colors repeated?

Interpretation

Interpretation comes as much from the individual viewer as it does from the artwork. It de- rives from the intersection of what an object symbolizes to the artist and what it means to the viewer. It also often records how the meaning of objects has been changed by time and culture. Interpretation, then, is a process of unfolding. A work that may seem to mean one thing on first inspection may come to mean something more when studied further. Just as when re-reading a favorite book or re-watching a favorite movie, we often notice things not seen on the first viewing; interpretations of art objects can also reveal themselves slowly. Claims about meaning can be made but are better when they are backed up with supporting evidence. Interpretations can also change and some interpretations are better than others.

Evaluation

All this work of description, analysis, and interpretation, is done with one goal in mind: to make an evaluation about a work of art. Just as interpretations vary, so do evaluations. Your evaluation includes what you have discovered about the work during your examination as well as what you have learned, about the work, yourself, and others in the process. Your reaction to the artwork is an important component of your evaluation: what do you feel when you look at it? And, do you like the work? How and why do you find it visually pleasing, in some way disturbing, emotionally engaging?

Evaluating and judging contemporary works of art is more difficult than works that are hundreds or thousands of years old because the verdict of history has not yet been passed on them. Museums are full of paintings by contemporary artists who were considered the next Michelangelo but who have since faded from the cultural forefront.

The best art of a culture and period is that work which exemplifies the thought of the age from which it derives. What we think about our own culture is probably not what will be thought of it a century from now. The art that we believe best embodies our time may or may not last. As time moves on, our evaluations and judgments of our own time may not prove to be the most accurate ones. We live in a world full of art, and it is almost impossible to avoid making evaluations—possibly mistaken—about its value. Nonetheless, informed evaluations are still possible and useful even in the short term.

Examples of Formal Analysis

Snow Storm—Steam-Boat off a Harbour’s Mouth by J. M. W. Turner

Screen Shot 2019-10-04 at 7.38.02 PM.png Snow Storm—Steam-Boat off a Harbour’s Mouth by Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775- 1851, England) is a chaotic, atmospheric oil on canvas painting. (Figure 4.1) First, on the level of description, the dark structure of the foundering steamboat is hinted at in the center of the work, while heavy smoke from the vessel, pitching waves, and swirling snow surround it. The brown and gray curving lines are created with long strokes of heavily applied paint that expand to the edges of the composition. Second, on the level of analysis, we note that the paint application, heavy, with long strokes, adds dramatic movement to the image. We see that the design principle of scale and proportion is being used in the small size of the steamboat in relation to the overall canvas. Now let us interpret these elements and their relation: The artist has emphasized the maelstrom of sea, snow, and wind. A glimpse of blue sky through the smoke and snow above the vessel is the only indication of space beyond this gripping scene of danger, and provides the only place for the viewer’s eyes to rest from the tumult. This scene is of humanity’s struggle for survival against powerful forces of nature. And finally, we are ready to evaluate this work. Is it powerfully effective in reminding us of the transitory nature of our own limited existence, a memento mori, perhaps? Or is it a wise caution of the limits of our human power to control our destiny? Does the work have sufficient power and value to be accepted by us as significant? The verdict of history tells us it is. J.M.W. Turner is considered a significant artist of his time, and this work is one that is thought to support that verdict. In the end, however, each of us can accept or reject this historical verdict for our own reasons. We may fear the sea. We may reject the use of technology as valiantly heroic. We may see the British colonial period as one of oppression and tyranny and this work as an illustration of the hubris of that time. Whatever we conclude, this work of art stands as a catalyst for this important dialogue.

Another example of formal analysis. Consider Lady at the Tea Table by Mary Cassatt Mary Cassatt (1844-1925, USA, lived France) is best known for her paintings, drawings, and prints of mothers and children. In those works, she focused on the bond between them as well as the strength and dignity of women within the predominantly domestic and maternal roles they played in the nineteenth century.

Screen Shot 2019-10-04 at 7.48.25 PM.png

Lady at the Tea Table is a depiction of a woman in a later period of her life, and captures the sense of calm power a matriarch held within the home. (Figure 4.2) First, a description of the elements being used in this work: The white of the wall behind the woman and the tablecloth be- fore her provide a strong contrast to the black of her clothing and the blue of the tea set. The gold frame of the artwork on the wall, the gold rings on her fingers, and the gold bands on the china link those three main elements of the painting. Analysis shows the organizing principle of variety is employed in the rectangles behind the woman’s head and the multiple circles and arcs of the individual pieces of the tea set. The composition is a stable triangle formed by the woman’s head and body, and extending to the pieces of china that span the foreground from one edge of the composition to the other. Let us interpret these observations. There is little evidence of movement in the work other than the suggestion that the woman’s hand, resting on the handle of the teapot, may soon move. Her gaze, directed away from the viewer and out of the picture frame, implies she is in the midst of pouring tea, but her stillness suggests she is lost in thought. How to evaluate this work? The artist expresses a restrained but powerful strength of character in her treatment of this subject. Is the lack of obvious movement in the work a comment on the emergence of women’s roles in society, a hope or a demand for change? Or is it a monument to the quiet dignity of the domestic life of Victorian era Paris? The gold of the frame, the rings, and the china dishes appear to unify three disparate objects into one statement of value. Do they symbolize art, fidelity, and service? Is this a comment on the restrictions of French domestic society, or a claim to its strength? One indication of the quality of a work of art is its power to evoke multiple interpretations. This open and poetic richness is one reason why the work of Mary Cassatt is considered to be important. The above examples are only one of many ways in which we can interpret and evaluate works of art. We will examine a few more approaches to analysis and critique. The point of this exercise is to equip the interested student with tools to become more fully aware of the dynamics and content of works of art, not only in museums and textbooks, but in the world of images that continually surrounds us today.

4.2: FORMAL OR CRITICAL ANALYSIS is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Pamela Sachant, Peggy Blood, Jeffery LeMieux, & Rita Tekippe (GALILEO Open Learning Materials)

Art Appreciation. Authored by: Wendy Riley . Provided by: Columbia Basin College. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Artistic Principles. Authored by: Christopher Gildow. Located at: https://learn.canvas.net/courses/24/modules#module_19

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Works Cited

McCloud, S. (1994). Understanding comics: Writing and art. Harper Perennial.