A brief history of the cultures of Asia

Historians divide history into large and small units in order to make characteristics and changes clear to themselves and to students. It’s important to remember that any historical period is a construction and a simplification. Keep in mind that these categories are complicated by previous divisions, some of which reflect a violent history, such as campaigns of colonization by Western or Asian countries

Silk and Spice Routes (image: UNESCO, Silk Roads: Dialogue, Diversity & Development)

(l) Orthographic projection of Asia (image adapted from: Koyos + Ssolbergj CC BY-SA 4.0). (r) Silk and Spice Routes (image: UNESCO, Silk Roads: Dialogue, Diversity & Development)

Cultural divisions

One way of looking at Asia’s cultural histories is to trace major transcultural phenomena — from religious to commercial — that spanned multiple periods and geographical regions. Such phenomena include:

Buddhism, which developed in India in reaction to the established religion, Hinduism, and subsequently spread to other countries in South, Southeast, and East Asia. From the 6th century B.C.E. to the present day, Buddhism shaped various aspects central to these Asian cultures, from principles of government to visual and material culture. See the Smarthistory resource on Hinduism + Buddhism.
Islam, founded by Muhammad in the early 7th century C.E. at Mecca (in modern-day Saudi Arabia), spread over the centuries in Central and Western Asia all the way to the Pacific nation of Indonesia, and reached non-Asian territories in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. One can trace the history of the Islamic world and its deep imprint on many Asian cultures and on pan-regional cultural phenomena within Asia and beyond. See the Smarthistory resource, Introduction to Islam

The Silk Road, named as such only in the 19th century, is a network of trade routes harkening back to the 2nd century B.C.E., which connected, over the centuries, territories from Eastern China to Southern Europe and North Africa. Although occasioned by trade, especially in silk, these pan-Asian routes had a significant influence on local cultures and enabled cross-cultural encounters.

The Indus Valley Civilization

Map showing Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, two of several major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization (area marked in purple). Inset: Mohenjo-daro (photo: Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath in the foreground and the granary mound in the background (photo: Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0)

(l) Map showing Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, two of several major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization (area marked in purple). (r) Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, the Great Bath in the foreground and the granary mound in the background (photo: Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Between 2600 and 1900 B.C.E., several settlements (see map 2 above) thrived around the river Indus which extends from the Tibetan plateau and flows into the Arabian Sea. These settlements—Indus cities have been excavated in Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan—are known collectively as the Indus Valley Civilization. Large sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in Pakistan have revealed highly efficient urban-planning, well-designed homes and neighborhoods laid out on a grid pattern, granaries, and public buildings all built with uniformly sized bricks. The Indus people were skilled in the management of natural resources; the site of Dholavira in Gujarat, India for instance, had a sophisticated system of water management. A complex writing system was also in use in this period, although sadly, the Indus script remains undeciphered. Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?), c. 2600 - 1900 BCE, Indus (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?), c. 2600 - 1900 BCE, Indus (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Terracotta figures, c. 2500 BCE Indus Valley Culture, Chanhu Daro, Pakistan (Brooklyn Museum)

(l) Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?), c. 2600–1900 B.C.E., Indus (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). (r) Terracotta figures, c. 2500 B.C.E. Indus Valley Culture, Chanhu Daro, Pakistan (Brooklyn Museum)

Miniature terracotta figurines of a range of animals including the rhinoceros, birds, and dogs, and bullock drawn carts with drivers (see below) have been excavated from Indus sites. Whether they represent votive images or are simply children’s toys is as yet undecided. Board games, jewelry made of shells and beads, and stone and bronze figurines have also been discovered as have many steatite seals. These seals may have been used in trade and ritual and are distinguishable by their engravings of animals, humans, possibly divine beings, and, on occasion, unicorns!

Seal, 2500–2400 B.C.E., steatite, Mohenjodaro, Indus Valley Civilization (National Museum Delhi), photo credit

Seal, 2500–2400 B.C.E., steatite, coated with alkali, and baked, Mohenjodaro, Indus Valley Civilization (National Museum New Delhi)

Incised on this small stone (less than two inches across), we see a large figure seated on a dais surrounded by a horned buffalo, a rhinoceros, an elephant, and a tiger. Beneath the platform is a small antlered deer that is one of a pair. An inscription (as yet untranslated), has been carved into the very top of the seal, with one symbol apparently displaced to the space between the elephant and the tiger. The stone seal, which would have been pressed onto a soft base such as clay to create a positive imprint, is dated to c. 2500–2400 B.C.E. and was found in the archaeological site of Mohenjo-daro.

The figure’s frontality and symmetry demands deference, as does its impressively large and deeply curved horned headdress. The legs are elongated and, even folded at the knee, occupy the length of the seat. The figure has been described by scholars variously as male, female, with multiple heads, and not. It is also most frequently described as the Pashupati seal, after an epithet for the Hindu god Shiva that means “lord of beasts.” The figure’s apparent mastery over wild animals is thought to be implied by the type of animals — that is, the buffalo, rhinoceros, elephant, and the tiger — included in the seal.

It is evident from the figure’s controlled and meditative bearing that we are witnessing a type of principled self-discipline and asceticism that calls for reverence. Early scholarship posited that the figure in the seal was an ancient Vedic form of the Hindu god Shiva. This theory was based in part on the yogic pose which refers to Shiva as the primary instructor of yoga. This theory is still inconclusive, however, as Vedic practices which introduced Shiva to the Indus valley region were still a thousand years away. Although our inability to read the inscription on the seal undermines our understanding of its intended purpose and meaning, its iconography bring us a step closer to understanding the people of the Indus Valley Civilization and their rich spiritual culture.

Hinduism and Buddhism, an introduction

Detail, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, Gupta period, 5th C.E., terracotta, 53.3 x 40.6. x 10.8 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Detail, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, Gupta period, 5th century, terracotta, 53.3 x 40.6. x 10.8 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Origins of Hinduism

Unlike Christianity or Buddhism, Hinduism did not develop from the teachings of a single founder. Moreover, it has diverse traditions, owing to its long history and continued development over the course of more than 3000 years. The term Hindu originally referred to those living on the other side of the Indus River, and by the 13th century, it simply referred to those living in India. It was only in the 18th century that the term Hindu became specifically related to an Indic religion generally.Hindus adhere to the principles of the Vedas, which are a body of Sanskritic texts that date as early as 1700 B.C.E. However, unlike the Christian or Islamic traditions, which have the Bible and the Koran, Hinduism does not adhere to a single text. The lack of a singular text, among other things, also makes Hinduism a difficult religion to define.

Hindu gods and worship of the gods

Hinduism’s emphasis on the universal spirit, or Brahman, allows for the existence of a pantheon of divinities while remaining devoted to a particular god. It is for this reason that some scholars have referred to Hinduism as a henotheistic religion (the belief in and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities). Because doctrinal views vary so widely among Hindus, there is no norm based on orthodoxy or right belief.

Within the Hindu pantheon are a number of gods, goddesses, and deities; however, one entity is supreme, Brahman. Brahman is the Supreme Being; the One self-existent power; the Reality which is the source of all being and all-knowing. Enlightenment for the Hindu is recognizing that all things are united. Brahman is traditionally said to manifest on earth as the Trimurti: Brahma as the creator god; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer. Brahman manifests himself on earth in other gods so that he will be more knowable. With this said, for Hindus, reaching salvation is understanding that everything is in union.

The different names and forms that a god can take are immaterial as they are essentially Brahman.Each god has a specific power and role. Ganesha, for example, is the lord of beginnings and the remover of obstacles. It is for this reason that images of Ganesha are present in Hindu temples, regardless of who the temple is dedicated. Durga, who is solicited for protection, is also equally sought by women for fertility.

The Hindu world

For Hindus, time and space are organized and conceived of as cyclical. In Hindu mythology, there are cycles of cosmic ages from the golden age (kitri yuga) to the dark age (kali yuga). We are currently in a degenerate dark age. When it ends, in several millennia, the universe will be destroyed and Brahma will create it anew. Just as the universe and time are conceived as being cyclical so is the progress of the individual soul. For Hindus, the soul is bound to a near-infinite cycle of birth, death and rebirth called samsara.In order to escape this cycle one must realize everything is one, everything is Brahman. In other words, one’s individual soul is the same as the universal soul. When this is accomplished it is called moksa and marks the end of the samsaric cycle of rebirth. All of this is understood through Hindu Dharma. For the Hindus, Dharma explains why things are and why they should be—there must be order in everything including society. And this is where the idea of the caste system finds credence in Hinduism. One’s ranking in the social caste system is dependent on one’s karma, translated from Sanskrit to mean “act/ion.”

Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja)

Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), c. 11th century, Copper alloy, Chola period, 68.3 x 56.5 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Shiva Nataraja in procession. (photo: Neil Greentree. Source: Smithsonian Institution)

(l.) Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), c. 11th century, Copper alloy, Chola period, 68.3 x 56.5 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). (r.) hiva Nataraja in procession. (photo: Neil Greentree. Source: Smithsonian Institution)

Hindu devotees carried these statues in processional parades as priests followed chanting prayers and bestowing blessings on people gathered for this purpose. Sometimes the statues would be adorned in resplendent red and green clothes and gold jewelry to denote the glorious human form of the gods. In these processions The Shiva Nataraja may have had its legs wrapped with a white and red cloth, adorned with flowers, and surrounded by candles. In a religious Hindu context, the statue is the literal embodiment of the divine. When the worshiper comes before the statue and begins to pray, faith activates the divine energy inherent in the statue, and at that moment, Shiva is present. While the god does not always reside in the image, he or she does, from time to time, descend to earth and take the form of the image.

Shiva constitutes a part of a powerful triad of divine energy within the cosmos of the Hindu religion. There is Brahma, the benevolent creator of the universe; there is Vishnu, the sagacious preserver; then there is Shiva, the destroyer. “Destroyer” in this sense is not an entirely negative force, but one that is expansive in its impact. In Hindu religious philosophy all things must come to a natural end so they can begin anew, and Shiva is the agent that brings about this end so that a new cycle can begin.

The Metropolitan Museum’s Shiva Nataraja was made some time in the eleventh century during the Chola Dynasty (ninth-thirteenth centuries C.E.) in south India. One of the longest lasting empires of south India, the Chola Dynasty heralded a golden age of exploration, trade, and artistic development. A great area of innovation within the arts of the Chola period was in the field of metalwork, particularly in bronze sculpture. This image of Shiva is taken from the ancient Indian manual of visual depiction, the Shilpa Shastras (The Science or Rules of Sculpture), which contained a precise set of measurements and shapes for the limbs and proportions of the divine figure. Arms were to be long like stalks of bamboo, faces round like the moon, and eyes shaped like almonds or the leaves of a lotus. The Shastras were a primer on the ideals of beauty and physical perfection within ancient Hindu ideology.

Round face, almond eyes and long arms of Shiva surrounded by circle of fire (detail), Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), c. 11th century, Copper alloy, Chola period, 68.3 x 56.5 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Shiva's upper left hand holding the agni, the flame of destruction (detail), Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), c. 11th century, Copper alloy, Chola period, 68.3 x 56.5 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Shiva's foot on Apasmara (detail), Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), c. 11th century, Copper alloy, Chola period, 68.3 x 56.5 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

(l) Round face, almond eyes and long arms of Shiva surrounded by circle of fire (detail). (m) Shiva’s upper left hand holding the agni, the flame of destruction (detail). (r) Shiva’s right foot stands upon the huddled dwarf, the demon Apasmara, the embodiment of ignorance. Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), c. 11th century, Copper alloy, Chola period, 68.3 x 56.5 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

A dance within the cosmic circle of fire

Here, Shiva embodies those perfect physical qualities as he is frozen in the moment of his dance within the cosmic circle of fire that is the simultaneous and continuous creation and destruction of the universe.

The ring of fire that surrounds the figure is the encapsulated cosmos of mass, time, and space, whose endless cycle of annihilation and regeneration moves in tune to the beat of Shiva’s drum and the rhythm of his steps.
In his upper right hand he holds the damaru , the drum whose beats syncopate the act of creation and the passage of time.
His lower right hand with his palm raised and facing the viewer is lifted in the gesture of the abhaya mudra, which says to the supplicant, “Be not afraid, for those who follow the path of righteousness will have my blessing.”
Shiva’s lower left hand stretches diagonally across his chest with his palm facing down towards his raised left foot, which signifies spiritual grace and fulfillment through meditation and mastery over one’s baser appetites.
In his upper left hand he holds the agni (image left), the flame of destruction that annihilates all that the sound of the damaru has drummed into existence.
Shiva’s hair, the long hair of the yogi, streams out across the space within the halo of fire that constitutes the universe. Throughout this entire process of chaos and renewal, the face of the god remains tranquil.

Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

The 6th-century Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh is considered to be one of the most accomplished examples of architecture in the Gupta Period (c. 320–647 C.E., named for the Gupta Dynasty). The name Dashavatar (meaning ten avatars) comes from the four sculptural panels on the exterior walls of the central shrine, which depict various avatars and aspects of the Hindu god Vishnu. Under the Gupta Dynasty in North Central India, Hindu and Buddhist temples evolved from rock-cut shrines into structural temples, with elaborate carvings and carefully gridded plans. While we do not have information about the temple’s patrons, taking a closer look at it can help us understand how it marks an important moment in the stylistic trajectory of Hindu temple architecture.

South wall, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, India, 6th century (photo: Work2win, CC BY-SA 4.0)

A sketch made by British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham depicting the plan of the temple, 1880

South wall, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, India, 6th century (photo: Work2win, CC BY-SA 4.0)

On approaching the archaeological remains of the Dashavatara Temple today, we see a central shrine in the shape of a square that sits on a raised square plinth (jagati) with stairs on each side. The central shrine rises upwards in a strong vertical line. It forms a cube that is capped by the remnants of a shikhara (which translates to “mountain peak”), a pyramidal towerike structure, originally about 40 feet tall with three stories of receding tiers.

Each of the three exterior walls of the central shrine, as well as the doorway on the fourth wall, bears a different depiction of the Hindu god Vishnu, set in broad and deep central niches enclosed within elaborately carved frames. Before entering the central shrine, devotees would most likely have circumambulated the shrine, making their way past the three main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple’s exterior walls. Through an analysis of these elements, we can trace a continuous thread of Vaishnava narratives and identify representations of the many avatars of Vishnu.

On the southern wall we see a depiction of the elephant-headed deity Ganesha symbolizing the overcoming of obstacles and auspicious beginnings, Ganesha was invoked at the beginning of worship and his presence on this wall suggests that the circumambulation may have begun at this panel, and could have been counter-clockwise, (starting in the South and ending at the West).

Vishnu reclining, southern wall, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, India, 6th century

Vishnu reclining, southern wall, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, India, 6th century

The central panel depicts Vishnu reclining on his serpent—whose coiled body resembles rocks—in an image known as Anantasayana. The many-hooded serpent forms a protective canopy above the god in his repose. This panel represents “the beginning” since it references the birth of the three-faced Hindu god, Brahma—the creator of the Universe in Hindu cosmology—seated on a lotus in the top center after emerging from the navel of Vishnu.In the left corner we see Indra on his elephant mount and next Kartikeya, the Hindu deity associated with war, on his peacock mount. On the other side, Shiva and Parvati are seated on the bull Nandi. By Vishnu’s foot, we see his consort Lakshmi, and behind her, a whisk-bearing female attendant. Next to Lakshmi, and directly below Indra’s elephant, we see a personified Garuda, Vishnu’s eagle mount.

This temple has enormous historical and architectural value. Often discussed in the context of other early Gupta Period temples (such as the Parvati and Bhumara temples in Madhya Pradesh), the Dashavatara Temple is the earliest fully structural temple in north India to possess a shikhara (mountain-like towers). In comparison to older Gupta temples known to us, its ambitious architecture, as well as its complex and cohesive sculptural program mark it as a high point in the development of Hindu temple art and architecture.

Buddhism and the Buddha

The social caste system as described by Hindu Dharma was likely one of the biggest factors in the development of Buddhism. Buddhism developed in reaction to the established religion in India at the time—Hinduism (Brahminism). Buddhism, in contrast to Hinduism, has a single founder and while there is no singular text there are texts that outline the teachings of the Buddha as the great and exemplary teacher.Buddhism was founded by one individual, Siddhartha Gautama, sometime in the 6th or 5th century B.C.E. Prince Siddhartha Gautama’s biography has very much become a part of the foundation of the Buddhist teachings.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama lived a cloistered life of ease and abundance. At the age of 29, he came across a sick man, an old man, a dead man, and an ascetic. Siddhartha had never seen these unpleasant aspects of life before and was profoundly moved and confused. He could no longer ignore the existence of suffering in the world and live his life of privilege, knowing that old age and death are our inevitable fate. It was at this time that he chose to depart from his sheltered life to become an ascetic and find the truth about the universe.

The middle way

He removed his jewels and rich robes forever, cut his hair and went into the forest, and became an ascetic where he studied with a variety of sages and yogis, but he was unsatisfied with their teachings. He also practiced several types of self-mortification—most importantly starvation, because he wanted to concentrate exclusively on his spiritual advancements. These searches proved fruitless and he finally came to the realization that the Middle Path (avoiding extremes) was the path towards enlightenment. The middle path teaches adherents to avoid extremes. For Siddhartha that meant neither a life of luxury as a prince nor starving himself.

He traveled to a town in northern India called Bodh Gaya, where he sat under a type of tree called a bodhi tree and vowed to remain there until he reached enlightenment. After remaining in that spot in deep meditation for 49 days. The demon god, Mara tried to disrupt Siddhartha’s meditation and sent his beautiful daughters to tempt him. Siddhartha remained unmoved, kept his meditation, and thus passed this final trial and gained enlightenment. At the moment of his enlightenment, he came to be known as Buddha, which translates from Sanskrit as “enlightened one.”

The Buddha’s teachings utilized much of the same vocabulary of the Hindus. For example, Dharma for Hindus explains why things are and why they should be. For Buddhists, Dharma came to be defined as the teachings of the Buddha. The caste system became invalid as the Buddha simply denied its relevance towards reaching salvation—as his salvation denied the existence of the self.

For Hindus, salvation comes in realizing that everything is one, everything is in union with Brahman and one’s soul is the same as the universal soul. When the Buddha taught that there was no self, there was no need to attach the self to Brahman. Similarly, in the Hindu context, karma refers to ritual action, whereas for the Buddhists’ karma has always been an ethical action. For Buddhists, karma (action)—whether good or bad —lay in the intention. Buddha deemphasized Brahmanical rituals by making karma an ethical act and focusing on intention. Moreover, the Brahmin caste who had direct access to the gods through rituals were no longer a privileged class in Buddhism. In Buddhism, anyone who understood the teachings of the Buddha could achieve salvation.Once an individual has become enlightened they can then reach a state of nirvana. Nirvana is described as the extinguishment of suffering by escaping the continuous cycle of rebirth called samsara. An individual’s ability to reach enlightenment and nirvana is dependent on their understanding of the Dharma.

The Buddha’s teachings

The basic tenants of the Buddhist faith are called the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are meant to uncover one’s eyes of the dust from the secular world and show the practitioner that:

Life is suffering: it is suffering because we are not perfect nor is the world in which we live perfect.
The origin of suffering is attachment or desire: attachment to transient things and ignorance thereof. Objects of attachment also include the idea of a “self” which is a delusion, because there is no abiding self. What we call “self” is just an imagined entity, and we are merely a part of the ceaseless becoming of the universe.
The cessation of suffering can be attained through the detachment of desire and craving.
The end of suffering is achieved by seeking the middle path (Eightfold Path). It is the middle way between the two extremes of excessive self-indulgence and excessive self-mortification, leading to the end of the cycle of rebirth.

Buddhist practice

During the time of the Buddha, there was only one school of Buddhism, which is the one that the Buddha taught; however, over time there came to be different sects of Buddhism. However, regardless of what sect of Buddhism one is talking about, all adhere to the Buddha’s doctrine of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Two major schools of Buddhist thought are Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.Theravada translates to “the School of the Elders” since it is believed by some to be closer to the Buddha’s original teachings. According to Theravada Buddhists, each person is responsible for their own enlightenment. There are teachers and models, and the Buddha is exemplary, but, everyone must ultimately reach enlightenment by their own volition. Today, Theravada Buddhism is practiced in much of mainland Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.Mahayana Buddhism was a school that developed in c. 100 C.E. Mahayana literally means: the “big vehicle.” It is a big vehicle that transports more sentient beings off the samsaric cycle towards enlightenment and nirvana. One of the cornerstones of Mahayana Buddhism is compassion, which is visualized in the appearance of the bodhisattvas. Bodhisattvas are altruistic enlightened beings that vow to delay their own parinirvana (final nirvana) until every sentient being reaches enlightenment. Mahayana Buddhism is most commonly practiced in East Asia and Vietnam.Where Theravada and Mahayana differ is that Mahayana regards becoming a bodhisattva as the ultimate goal. Therefore depictions of bodhisattvas are frequent in Mahayana art. Another fundamental difference between the two schools is how they regard the character of the Buddha. Mahayana considers the Buddha to be nearly divine in nature—he is superhuman and as such, he is worshipped in Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada considers the Buddha an exemplar, the great teacher.

Decline of Buddhism in India

By the 13th century, Buddhism had largely disappeared from the country of its birth, though it has been kept alive in various forms across Asia. In fact, it is the single most important shared cultural phenomenon found throughout Asia was the transmission and adoption of Buddhism.

Stupas

The stupa (“stupa” is Sanskrit for heap) is an important form of Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. It is generally considered to be a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or a receptacle for religious objects. At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial mound faced with stone. In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the Buddha’s ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be associated with the body of the Buddha. Adding the Buddha’s ashes to the mound of dirt activated it with the energy of the Buddha himself.

Dhamek Stupa, c. 5th–6th century (Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India) (photo: Anandajoti Bhikkhu, CC BY 2.0)

Dhamek Stupa, c. 5th–6th century (Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India) (photo: Anandajoti Bhikkhu, CC BY 2.0)

Before Buddhism, great teachers were buried in mounds. Some were cremated, but sometimes they were buried in a seated, meditative position. The mound of earth covered them up. The ashes of the Buddha were buried in stupas built at locations associated with important events in the Buddha’s life including Lumbini (where he was born), Bodh Gaya (where he achieved Enlightenment), Deer Park at Sarnath (where he preached his first sermon sharing the Four Noble Truths), and Kushingara (where he died). The choice of these sites and others were based on both real and legendary events.

According to legend, King Ashoka, who was the first king to embrace Buddhism, created 84,000 stupas and divided the Buddha’s ashes among them all. While this is an exaggeration (and the stupas were built by Ashoka some 250 years after the Buddha’s death), it is clear that Ashoka was responsible for building many stupas all over northern India and the other territories under the Mauryan Dynasty in areas now known as Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. One of Ashoka’s goals was to provide new converts with the tools to help with their new faith. In this, Ashoka was following the directions of the Buddha who directed that stupas should be erected in places other than those associated with key moments of his life so that “the hearts of many shall be made calm and glad.” Ashoka also built stupas in regions where the people might have difficulty reaching the stupas that contained the Buddha’s ashes.

One of the most famous stupas, the Great Stupa (Mahastupa) in Madya Pradesh, India was built at the birthplace of Ashoka’s wife, Devi, daughter of a local merchant in the village of Sanchi located on an important trade route (photo: Nagarjun Kandukuru, CC BY 2.0)

The Great Stupa (Mahastupa) in Madya Pradesh, India was built at the birthplace of Ashoka’s wife, Devi, daughter of a local merchant in the village of Sanchi located on an important trade route (photo: Nagarjun Kandukuru, CC BY 2.0)

For Buddhists, building stupas also has karmic benefits. Karma, a key component in both Hinduism and Buddhism, is the energy generated by a person’s actions and the ethical consequences of those actions. Karma affects a person’s next existence or re-birth. For example, in the Avadāna Sutra ten merits of building a stupa are outlined. One states that if a practitioner builds a stupa he or she will not be reborn in a remote location and will not suffer from extreme poverty. As a result, a vast number of stupas dot the countryside in Tibet (where they are called chorten) and in Burma (chedi).

The circle or wheel

If one thinks of the stupa as a circle or wheel, the unmoving center symbolizes Enlightenment. Likewise, the practitioner achieves stillness and peace when the Buddhist dharma is fully understood. Many stupas are placed on a square base, and the four sides represent the four directions: north, south, east, and west. Each side often has a gate in the center, which allows the practitioner to enter from any side.

Toranas

The gates are called torana. Each gate also represents the four great life events of the Buddha: East (Buddha’s birth), South (Enlightenment), West (First Sermon where he preached his teachings or dharma), and North (Nirvana). The gates are turned at right angles to the axis mundi to indicate movement in the manner of the arms of a svastika, a directional symbol that, in Sanskrit, means “to be good” (“su” means good or auspicious and “asti” means to be). The torana are directional gates guiding the practitioner in the correct direction on the correct path to Enlightenment, the understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

These toranas are richly adorned with scenes from the Jataka tales, various events from the life of the Buddha, and other symbolic imagery. Notably, the decoration on these gateways does not contain direct images of the Buddha himself. This is because early Buddhist art adhered to the aniconic tradition, where the Buddha was represented through symbols such as the lotus, the wheel, or the Bodhi tree, rather than through anthropomorphic depictions.

Annotated diagram of a stupa, Stupa 3, Sanchi, India (photo: Anandajoti Bhikkhu, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Annotated diagram of a stupa, Stupa 3, Sanchi, India (photo: Anandajoti Bhikkhu, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The eastern torana of the Great Stupa at Sanchi is particularly remarkable for its depiction of a yakshi, a nature spirit and fertility goddess. This yakshi is depicted in the tribhanga pose, a classic stance in Indian art characterized by the body being bent at three points, creating a graceful and sensuous form. She is shown grasping the branches of a tree, symbolizing her connection to nature and fertility.

Yakshi

Yakshi from Eastern Torana, Stupa 3, Sanchi, India

Originally, yakshis were worshipped as fertility deities in local traditions. However, with the spread of Buddhism, their imagery was adopted and their meanings transformed. This process is known as syncretism, which refers to the blending of elements from different cultures or religions to create something new. In the context of Buddhist art, the yakshi at Sanchi embodies auspiciousness and the life-affirming qualities of fertility, linking the natural world with the spiritual. Her presence on the torana not only enhances the sanctity of the stupa but also reflects the harmonious blending of local and Buddhist traditions.

The depiction of the yakshi on the eastern torana, with her joyful expression and dynamic pose, serves as a powerful symbol of prosperity and growth. This integration of the yakshi into Buddhist iconography illustrates the syncretic nature of early Indian religious art, where elements from various cultural and religious backgrounds were seamlessly integrated into the Buddhist artistic tradition.

Circumambulation

The practitioner does not enter the stupa, it is a solid object. Instead, the practitioner circumambulates (walks around) it as a meditational practice focusing on the Buddha’s teachings. This movement suggests the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara) and the spokes of the Eightfold Path (eight guidelines that assist the practitioner) that leads to knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and into the center of the unmoving hub of the wheel, Enlightenment. This walking meditation at a stupa enables the practitioner to visualize Enlightenment as the movement from the perimeter of the stupa to the unmoving hub at the center marked by the yasti.

Images of the Buddha

Depictions of the Buddha The Buddha was not shown in human form in early Indian art, but rather, in aniconic (symbolic) form. Stupas were adorned with visually engaging stories that celebrated the Buddha with symbols—footprints, thrones, and parasols, for example—that signified the presence of the Buddha and commanded the respect that the Buddha himself would receive.

The reasons for avoiding anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha in those early centuries may have centered on the belief that the Buddha—who had lived 550 lifetimes and had achieved nirvana (liberation from the cycle of karmic rebirth)—was freed of the human form. By the turn of the common era, however, Buddhist beliefs had changed. The Buddha was deified, and with the development of the anthropomorphic Buddha, devotees were given a new focus for their ritual practices in shrines and monasteries. This trend of depicting the Buddha in aniconic form continues until after the turn of the 1st century C.E. with the development of Mahayana Buddhism when we begin to see a large number of images of the Buddha in human or anthropomorphic form (below). These new, iconic images of the Buddha were particularly popular in the region of Gandhara (in present-day Pakistan) during the Kushana period and include depictions of the Buddha’s enlightenment at Bodh Gaya (below).

These anthropomorphic images usher in a new phase of Buddhist art in which artists convey meaning through the depiction of special bodily marks (lakshanas) and hand gestures (mudras) of the Buddha. In this anthropomorphic image of the Buddha’s enlightenment, the artist depicts Prince Siddhartha seated on a throne, surrounded by the demon Mara and his army, who attempted—unsuccessfully—to thwart Prince Siddhartha’s attainment of enlightenment. At the moment of enlightenment, the prince reaches his right hand towards the ground in a gesture (or mudra, and specifically the bhumisparshamudra) ) of calling the earth to witness his spiritual awakening. In doing so he becomes the Buddha.

Title: Head of the Buddha, c. 100–300 C.E., Kushan dynasty, dark grey schist, made in Gandhara, Pakistan, 38.7 x 23.50 (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Sculptural fragment depicting Buddha’s enlightenment, Gandhara, Kushana period, 2nd-3rd century C.E., schist, (Smithsonian, Freer Gallery of Art)

Title: Head of the Buddha, c. 100–300 C.E., Kushan dynasty, dark grey schist, made in Gandhara, Pakistan, 38.7 x 23.50 (© Trustees of the British Museum)

In the image on the right, we can see a better view of other signifiers of his godliness, which have since become standard in most depictions of the Buddha. The top-knot (ushnisha) represents the Buddha's enlightenment, while the urna signifies the Buddha is an auspicious person as well as representing his expanded sight. he Buddha’s elongated earlobes are a reminder of his royal past, as he once wore heavy earrings. They signify his renunciation of worldly pleasures and material wealth. The historic Buddha’s life as a prince prior to his enlightenment is referenced by his elongated ears, which were caused by the heavy jewelry that he once wore.

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