2.5- Sculpture and Installation Art

(l) Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon, 13th c. Schist, 34 × 21 ¼ × 10 ½". Los Angeles County Museum of Art. (Public Domain). (r) Attack on Tiglath-Pileser III, Nimrud, Iraq, ca. 720-743 BCE. Gypsum. British Museum, London. 

Sculpture Methods

Carving

Carving uses the subtractive process to cut away areas from a larger mass, and is the oldest method used for three-dimensional work. Traditionally stone and wood were the most common materials because they were readily available and extremely durable. Contemporary materials include foam, plastics and glass. Using chisels and other sharp tools, artists carve away material until the ultimate form of the work is achieved.

A beautiful example of the carving process is seen in the Water and Moon Bodhisattva Links to an external site. from tenth-century China. The Bodhisattva, a Buddhist figure who has attained enlightenment Links to an external site. but decides to stay on earth to teach others, is exquisitely carved and painted. The figure is almost eight feet high, seated in an elegant pose on a lotus bloom, relaxed, staring straight ahead with a calm, benevolent look. The extended right arm and raised knee create a stable triangular composition. The sculptor carves the left arm to simulate muscle tension inherent when it supports the weight of the body.

(l) Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara in Water Moon Form (Shuiyue Guanyin), Liao Dynasty, China, 907-1125) Met Museum, NY. (Public Domain). (r) Earthquake Mask, 9” x 7”, early twentieth century. Kwakwaka’ wakw culture, North American Pacific Coast. Burke Museum, University of Washington, Seattle. Used by permission.

In another example, you can see the high degree of relief carved from an original cedar wood block in the Earthquake Mask from the Pacific Northwest Coast Kwakwaka’ wakw culture. It’s extraordinary for masks to personify a natural event. This and other mythic figure masks are used in ritual and ceremony dances. The broad areas of paint give a heightened sense of character to this mask.

Michelangelo’s masterpiece statue of David from 1501 is carved and sanded to an idealized form that the artist releases from the massive block, a testament to human aesthetic brilliance.

Michelangelo, David, 1501, marble, 17 feet high. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence. Image in the public domain

Casting

Casting has been in use for more than five thousand years and is sometimes termed a replacement or substitution process. It’s a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. One traditional method of bronze casting frequently used today is the lost wax process Links to an external site.. A mold is made from an original wax sculpture that is melted away to create a negative cavity into which molten metal is poured. Traditionally, casting materials are usually metals, however, they can also be various cold-setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster, and clay.

Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. It’s a labor-intensive process that sometimes allows for the creation of multiples from an original object (similar to the medium of printmaking), each of which is extremely durable and almost exactly like its predecessor. A mold is usually destroyed after the desired number of castings has been made. Traditionally, bronze statues were placed atop pedestals to signify the importance of the figure depicted. A statue of William Seward (below), the U. S. Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln and who negotiated the purchase of the Alaska territories, is set nearly eight feet high so viewers must look up at him. Standing next to the globe, he holds a roll of plans in his left hand.

Auguste Rodin's "The Burghers of Calais" is a powerful bronze sculpture created between 1884 and 1889, commemorating a poignant episode from the Hundred Years' War. The work depicts six prominent citizens of Calais who, in 1347, volunteered to surrender themselves to the English king Edward III in hopes of saving their besieged city from destruction. Rodin’s interpretation captures the raw emotion and humanity of the figures, who are portrayed with a range of expressions from despair to resignation.

Auguste Rodin, The Burghers of Calais, Modeled 1884-1917. Bronze 6’10” x 7’10” x 6’3”. Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY.

Rodin chose to depict the moment before their sacrifice, emphasizing their bravery and selflessness. The figures are dressed in sackcloth, with exaggerated features and expressive body language, conveying their anguish and heroism. Unlike traditional monuments of the time, Rodin placed the figures on the ground level, allowing viewers to engage directly with their suffering and courage. This innovative approach to public sculpture was initially controversial but has since become celebrated for its emotional depth and realism. "The Burghers of Calais" remains a seminal work in Rodin's oeuvre and a significant milestone in modern sculpture.

 

(l) Richard Brooks, William Seward, bronze on stone pedestal, c. 1909. Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission. (r) Daryl Smith, Jimi Hendrix, 1996, bronze. Broadway and Pine, Seattle. Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.

More contemporary bronze cast sculptures reflect their subjects through different cultural perspectives. The statue of rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix is set on the ground, his figure cast as if performing on stage. He’s on both of his knees, head thrown back, eyes shut and mouth open in mid wail. His bell-bottom pants, frilly shirt unbuttoned halfway, necklace and headband give us a snapshot of 1960s rock culture but also engage us with the subject at our level.

Doris Chase was also a strong sculptor. Her large-scale abstract work Changing Form from 1971 is cast in bronze and dominates the area around it. The title refers to the visual experience you get walking around the work, seeing the positive and negative shapes dissolve and recombine with each other.

Doris Chase, Changing Form, 1971. Bronze. Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.

Modeling

Modeling is a method that can be both additive and subtractive. The artist uses modeling to build up form with clay, plaster or other soft material that can be pushed, pulled, pinched or poured into place. The material then hardens into the finished work. Larger sculptures created with this method make use of an armature, an underlying structure of wire that sets the physical shape of the work. Although modeling is primarily an additive process, artists do remove material in the process. Modeling a form is often a preliminary step in the casting method. In 2010, Swiss artist Alberto Giacometti’s Walking Man Links to an external site. (c. 1955), a bronze sculpture first modeled in clay, set a record for the highest price ever paid for a work of art at auction.

Moche stirrup vessels, created by the Moche civilization on Peru's northern coast between 100 and 800 CE, are renowned for their distinctive stirrup-shaped spouts and intricate designs. These ceramic vessels, often molded into forms depicting human figures, animals, and scenes from daily life and mythology, showcase the Moche artisans' advanced skills. The vessels are typically made from clay and finished with a polished slip, providing a smooth, glossy surface. The stirrup design not only adds aesthetic value but also controls the pouring of liquids and reduces evaporation, making these vessels both practical and visually appealing.

Beyond their utilitarian function, Moche stirrup vessels hold significant cultural meaning, often depicting deities, mythological scenes, and ceremonial activities, which offer insights into Moche religious beliefs and social practices. They were sometimes used in funerary contexts as offerings or libation containers. The naturalistic portraiture seen in some vessels, capturing realistic human faces, indicates a high level of artistic skill and possibly represents specific individuals in Moche society. Today, these vessels are celebrated as masterpieces of pre-Columbian art, providing a valuable connection to the rich cultural heritage of ancient Peru.

Assemblage/Construction

Construction, or Assemblage, uses found, manufactured or altered objects to build form. Artists weld, glue, bolt and wire individual pieces together. Sculptor Debra Butterfield transforms throw-away objects into abstract sculptures of horses Links to an external site. with scrap metal, wood and other found objects. She often casts these constructions in bronze.

Deborah Butterfield, Untitled, 2002. Bronze. Nevada Museum of Art. Photo by Rob Corder. CC BY-NC 2.0

Joseph Cornell (1903–1972) was an American artist and sculptor, best known for his unique and imaginative shadow boxes and assemblages. Cornell's work is characterized by his use of found objects, which he meticulously arranged in small, glass-fronted boxes to create dreamlike, surreal environments. These shadow boxes often contained nostalgic items such as Victorian photographs, maps, trinkets, and natural objects, evoking a sense of memory, wonder, and whimsy.

Cornell's method involved collecting and curating a vast array of ephemera and curiosities from flea markets, bookstores, and thrift shops. He would then carefully select and arrange these items within his boxes, creating intricate and poetic compositions. His process was intuitive and deeply personal, driven by his fascination with themes like childhood, travel, astronomy, and cinema. Cornell's meticulous attention to detail and his ability to transform everyday objects into evocative art pieces have made his work a significant contribution to 20th-century art, blending elements of Surrealism, Dada, and assemblage art.

Some modern and contemporary sculptures incorporate movement, light and sound. Kinetic sculptures use ambient air currents or motors allowing them to move, changing in form as the viewer stands in place. The artist Alexander Calder is famous for his mobiles Links to an external site., whimsical, abstract works that are intricately balanced to move at the slightest wisp of air.

(l) Alexander Calder, L'empennage (1953), Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art.  Creative Commons Links to an external site. Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Links to an external site. license. (r) George Tsutakawa, Fountain. Bronze, running water. City of Seattle. Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.

The idea of generating sound as part of three-dimensional works has been utilized for hundreds of years, traditionally in musical instruments that carry a spiritual reference. Contemporary artists use sound to heighten the effect of sculpture or to direct recorded narratives. The cast bronze fountain by George Tsutakawa (below) uses water flow to produce a soft rushing sound. In this instance the sculpture also attracts the viewer by the motion of the water: a clear, fluid addition to an otherwise hard abstract surface.

Doug Hollis’s A Sound Garden Links to an external site. from 1982 creates sounds from hollow metal tubes atop gridlike structures rising above the ground. In weathervane fashion, the tubes swing into the wind and resonate to specific pitch. The sound extends the aesthetic value of the work to include the sense of hearing and, together with the metal construction, creates a mechanical and psychological basis for the work.

Installation Art

Dan Flavin is one of the first artists to explore the possibilities of light as a sculptural medium. Since the 1960s his work has incorporated fluorescent bulbs of different colors and in various arrangements. Moreover, he takes advantage of the wall space the light is projected onto, literally blurring the line between traditional sculpture and the more complex medium of installation.

Dan Flavin, Green Crossing Greens.

Installation art utilizes multiple objects, often from various mediums, and takes up entire spaces. It can be generic or site specific. Because of their relative complexity, installations can address aesthetic and narrative ideas on a larger scale than traditional sculpture. Its genesis can be traced to the Dada movement, ascendant after World War I and which predicated a new aesthetic by its unconventional nature and ridicule of established tastes and styles. Sculpture came off the pedestal and began to transform entire rooms into works or art. 

British artist Rachel Whiteread’s installation Embankment Links to an external site. from 2005 fills an entire exhibition hall with casts made from various sized boxes. At first appearance a snowy mountain landscape navigated by the viewer is actually a gigantic nod to the idea of boxes as receptacles of memory towering above and stacked around them, squeezing them towards the center of the room.

Rachel Whiteread, Embankment, 2005. Source: Wikipedia, licensed through. Creative Commons

Land Art

Land art, also known as Earthworks, is an artistic movement that emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s, characterized by its use of natural landscapes to create large-scale, site-specific installations. Artists working in this genre often manipulate the earth, rocks, and other natural materials directly at the location to craft their artworks, integrating the natural environment into their creative process. Land art seeks to challenge traditional notions of art by removing it from conventional gallery spaces and placing it in the open landscape, where it interacts with the elements and evolves over time. This movement emphasizes a deep connection to the environment, often exploring themes such as nature, time, and the human impact on the Earth. Notable examples include Robert Smithson's "Spiral Jetty" and Walter De Maria's "The Lightning Field."

Robert Smithson's Spiral Jetty

"Spiral Jetty" is a renowned earthwork sculpture created by American artist Robert Smithson in April 1970. Located on the northeastern shore of the Great Salt Lake in Utah, this monumental artwork is constructed from mud, salt crystals, basalt rocks, and water. The structure forms a counterclockwise coil that extends 1,500 feet into the lake, creating a striking visual contrast against the natural landscape.

Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty Great Salt Lake, Utah. April 1970. Black rock, salt crystals, earth, red water, 3 x 15 x 1500’ (Public Domain).

Smithson's method involved moving over 6,000 tons of rock and earth using heavy machinery, carefully arranging these materials into the spiral form. "Spiral Jetty" is a prime example of Land Art, a movement that emerged in the late 1960s and sought to create artworks in natural environments, often on a grand scale. The jetty interacts with the lake's fluctuating water levels, sometimes submerged and other times fully visible, which alters its appearance over time. This interaction with natural elements emphasizes Smithson's interest in entropy, geological time, and the ever-changing nature of landscapes, making "Spiral Jetty" a dynamic and enduring piece of environmental art.

Andy Goldsworthy

Andy Goldsworthy is a British sculptor and environmentalist known for his site-specific installations and land art created using natural materials found in the environment. His artworks are characterized by their ephemeral nature, as he often constructs them using leaves, stones, ice, snow, twigs, and other organic materials, which are subject to the natural processes of decay and transformation.

Various Earthworks by Andy Goldsworthy.

Goldsworthy's method involves a deep engagement with the landscape, as he works directly in natural settings, carefully arranging materials in intricate patterns and forms. His works include stone cairns, ice spirals, leaf arrangements, and other sculptures that interact harmoniously with their surroundings. The transient nature of his art emphasizes the impermanence and constant change inherent in the natural world.

One of Goldsworthy's notable practices is creating pieces that explore the passage of time and the cycles of nature. For example, he might weave together icicles to form delicate structures that melt with the rising sun or arrange vibrant autumn leaves in a stream to highlight the flow of water and the changing seasons. These works are often documented through photography, capturing their beauty and the moments before they inevitably change or disappear.

Goldsworthy's art invites viewers to see the natural world in new ways, fostering a sense of wonder and respect for the environment. His meticulous craftsmanship and profound connection to nature have made him a leading figure in contemporary environmental art, influencing both art and environmental movements globally.