Reading - 2.7 - Architecture

To-Do Date: Dec 21 at 11:59pm

METHODS & MATERIALS

The basic methods in building design and construction have been used for thousands of years. Stacking stones, laying brick or lashing wood together in one form or another are still used today in all parts of the world. But over the centuries, innovations in methods and materials have given new expression to architecture and the human footprint on the landscape. We can look to historical examples for clues that give context to different style periods. 

 

(l) Jorn Utzon and Peter Hall, Sydney Opera House, 1973, Sydney Austrailia. Photo by Bernard Spragg. CC0. (r) Adrian Smith for Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Burj Khalifa, 2009, Dubai, UAE. CC BY-SA 3.0 Links to an external site.

Mud Brick

In Western culture, one of the earliest settlements with permanent structures was discovered at Catalhoyuk Links to an external site. in Turkey (pictured below). The rich soil that surrounds the settlement indicates the inhabitants relied in part on farming. Dated to about 7500 BCE, the dwellings are constructed from dried mud and brick and show wooden support beams spanning the ceilings. The design of the settlement incorporates a cell-like structure of small buildings either sharing common walls or separated by a few feet. The roofs are flat and were used as pathways between buildings.

   

(l) Restoration of interior, Catalhoyuk, Turkey. Image licensed under Creative Commons. 

Mud-brick architecture still exists today. The Great Mosque of Djenné, located in Mali, West Africa, is one of the most iconic examples. Constructed in 1907 on the site of an older mosque dating back to the 13th century, this remarkable structure is made entirely of sun-dried mud bricks (also known as adobe), giving it its distinctive appearance and organic form. The mosque's design, characterized by its massive, sculptural walls, intricate buttresses, and wooden beams projecting from the façade, reflects both traditional African building techniques and Islamic architectural influences.

Great Friday Mosque, Djenné, Mali. Rebuilt 1907 in the style of a 13th-century original. Photo by BluesyPete Links to an external site.. CC Links to an external site. Attribution 2.0 Links to an external site.

Historically, the Great Mosque of Djenné has played a pivotal role in the spiritual and social life of the community. The annual festival of the Crepissage de la Grand Mosquée, a communal plastering event, exemplifies the mosque's role in bringing the community together. During this event, the entire town collaborates to repair and re-plaster the mosque's exterior, using a mixture of mud and rice husks, a tradition that has been passed down through generations. This collective effort strengthens community bonds and maintains the structure's integrity.

Great Friday Mosque, Djenné, Mali. Rebuilt 1907 in the style of a 13th-century original. Creative Commons Links to an external site. Attribution 2.0 Links to an external site.

The Great Mosque of Djenné is also a prime example of green architecture. Its construction utilizes locally sourced materials, which minimizes environmental impact and supports sustainable building practices. The thick adobe walls naturally regulate indoor temperatures, providing insulation against the intense heat of the region and reducing the need for artificial cooling. Moreover, the mosque’s design incorporates natural ventilation, with strategically placed openings allowing air to circulate and cool the interior spaces. This eco-friendly approach not only demonstrates the ingenuity of traditional architectural practices but also offers valuable lessons for contemporary sustainable design.

Post and Lintel

   

(r) Stonehenge, Wiltshire County, England. Image: David Ball. Image licensed under Creative Commons. (r) Post and Lintel support in contemporary use. Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.

A significant advance came with the development of the post and lintel system. With this, a system of posts (either stone or wood) are placed at intervals and spanned by beams at the tops. The load is distributed down the posts to allow for areas of open space between them. Its earliest use is seen at Stonehenge (below), a prehistoric monument in southern England dating to about 3000 BCE.

 

Colonnade and Hypostyle

A colonnade continues the post and lintel method as a series of columns Links to an external site. and beams enveloping larger areas of space. Colonnades can be free standing or part of a larger structure. Common in Egyptian Links to an external site., Greek and Roman architectural design, their use creates visual rhythm and implies a sense of grandeur.

Another example is the colonnade surrounding St. Peter’s Square in the Vatican, Rome.

 

(l) Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Colonnade at St. Peter’s Square, the Vatican. 1656-67. Photo by Yair Haklai, CC BY-SA 4.0 Links to an external site., via Wikimedia Commons. (r) Contemporary colonnade. Image: Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.

The colonnade is part of our contemporary surroundings too. Parks and other public spaces use them to the same effect: providing visual and material stability in spanning areas of open space.

Large structures and halls could be constructed with multiple rows of colonnades. This is called a hypostyle structure. Early cultures like the ancient Egyptians and Persians utilized this structure.

Classical Order of Columns

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece. 447 BCE. Digital image by Kallistos and licensed under Creative Commons

The Parthenon, a Greek temple to the mythic goddess Athena, was built in the 5th century BCE in Athens and is part of a larger community of structures in the Acropolis Links to an external site.. All are considered pinnacles of classic Greek architecture. Ionic colonnades march across all sides of the Parthenon, the outer boundary of a very ordered interior floor plan.

The White House, 2008.  Creative Commons Links to an external site. Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Links to an external site. license.

Arches

The development of the arch gave architecture new alternatives to post and lintel construction. Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian Links to an external site. brick architecture. They supply strength and stability to walls without massive posts and beams because their construction minimizes the shear load imposed on them. This meant walls could go higher without compromising their stability and at the same time create larger areas of open space between arches. In addition, the arch gave buildings a more organic, expressive visual element. The Colosseum in Rome (below), built in the first century CE, uses repeated arches to define an imposing but decidedly airy structure. The fact that it’s still standing today is testament to the inherent strength of the arch.

   

(l) The Colosseum, Rome, Italy. 1st Century CE. Photo by David Iliff.Creative Commons. (r) Roman aqueduct, c. 1st century CE. Image in the public domain.

Roman aqueducts are another example of how effectively the arch was used. Tall and graceful, the arches support themselves in a colonnade and were used to transport a network of water channels throughout ancient Rome.

From the arch came two more important developments: domes and vaults.

Domes

An arch rotated on its vertical axis creates a dome, with its curving organic scoop of space reserved for the tops of the most important buildings. The Pantheon Links to an external site. in Rome sports a dome with an oculus – a round or elliptical opening at the top, that is the massive building’s only light source.

Inside, the main interior space is a rotunda, a large round room that creates a sense of grandeur and openness. The dome's interior is adorned with coffering, recessed panels that add aesthetic appeal and reduce the ceiling's weight. At the very top of the dome is the oculus, a large circular opening that allows natural light to illuminate the interior, creating a dramatic effect and symbolizing the connection between the temple and the heavens. Roman architects utilized concrete extensively, allowing them to create massive and durable structures like the Pantheon. This material, composed of a mix of lime mortar, volcanic sand, water, and small stones, was revolutionary in its strength and versatility. Roman concrete enabled the construction of large-scale buildings with complex shapes and provided a lasting legacy that has influenced architectural practices for centuries.

Dome Variations

The Hagia Sophia, located in Istanbul, Turkey, is a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture originally constructed as a cathedral by Emperor Justinian I in 537 AD. Over the centuries, it has served as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral, a Roman Catholic cathedral, an Ottoman mosque, and now, a museum. Renowned for its massive dome and architectural ingenuity, the Hagia Sophia has significantly influenced both Eastern and Western architecture.

Hagia Sophia, Photo by Arild Vågen Links to an external site., CC BY-SA 3.0 Links to an external site., via Wikimedia Commons

A key architectural innovation in the Hagia Sophia is the use of pendentives to support its central dome. Pendentives are triangular segments of a spherical surface, positioned between the arches and the base of the dome. These structures allow the circular base of the dome to rest on the square room below, effectively distributing the weight of the dome to the four supporting pillars. This ingenious solution not only enabled the construction of a larger and more stable dome but also allowed for an open and unobstructed interior space, contributing to the Hagia Sophia's awe-inspiring grandeur.

Vaults 

Extending an arch in a linear direction forms a vault, encapsulating tall, narrow spaces with inverted “U” shaped ceilings. The compressive force of the vault required thick walls on each side to keep it from collapsing. Because of this many vaults were situated underground – essentially tunnels – connecting areas of a larger building or providing covered transport of people, goods and materials throughout the city.

During the 9th through 12th centuries in the European Middle Ages a style of architecture now known as the Romanesque emerged. This style received its name from the fact that many of the elements utilized to construct large churches and cathedrals were derived from Roman elements, such as arches and vaults. Romanesque architecture was popular for nearly three hundred years (800 – 1100 CE). The style is characterized by barrel or groin Links to an external site. vault ceilings, thick walls with low exterior buttresses and squared off towers.

Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture, which flourished in Europe from the 12th to the 16th centuries, is renowned for its verticality, light, and intricate detailing, symbolizing a shift towards more elaborate and soaring structures compared to the earlier Romanesque style. A defining feature of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch, which not only provided a stronger and more stable structure but also allowed architects to build taller and more slender buildings. The pointed arch's ability to distribute weight more efficiently than the semicircular Romanesque arch enabled the creation of large windows and impressive heights, contributing to the ethereal quality of Gothic cathedrals.

Central to the aesthetic and structural advancements of Gothic architecture were stained glass windows and ribbed vaults. Stained glass windows, often depicting biblical scenes and saints, filled the interiors with vibrant colors and light, creating a heavenly ambiance and serving as a medium for storytelling and religious education. Ribbed vaults, with their intersecting ribbed arches, provided a framework that distributed the weight of the ceiling more efficiently, allowing for higher and more complex ceiling designs.

Church of St. Denis, France. 7th -12th centuries CE. Image in the public domain

St. Denis basilica in France (above) is one of the first Gothic style churches, known for its high vaulted ceilings and extensive use of stained glass windows. The architecture of the church became a symbol of spirituality itself: soaring heights, magnificently embellished interiors and exteriors, elaborate lighting and sheer grandeur on a massive scale. These structural innovations of Gothic architecture not only facilitated the impressive verticality and intricate designs but also created interiors flooded with light, symbolizing the divine and enhancing the spiritual experience. This style, with its emphasis on height, light, and elaborate detailing, remains one of the most iconic and enduring legacies in architectural history.

In Gothic architecture, buttresses and flying buttresses played crucial roles in supporting these towering structures. A buttress is a mass of masonry projecting from or built against a wall to strengthen it and resist the lateral forces pushing the wall outward, which are caused by the weight of the roof or vault. In contrast, a flying buttress is a specific type of buttress that is separate from the wall but connected to it by an arch. This arch transfers the lateral forces from the walls to a vertical support (buttress) positioned away from the building. Flying buttresses allowed for much taller and more slender walls, as they efficiently redirected the forces down and away from the building, thereby enabling the extensive use of stained glass windows and the characteristic Gothic expanses of light-filled spaces.

 ARCHITECTURE IN CHINA & THE FAR EAST

Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture Links to an external site. that has taken shape in East Asia Links to an external site. over many centuries. The structural principles of traditional Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged. Chinese architectural (and aesthetic) design is based on symmetry, a general emphasis on the horizontal and site layouts that reflect a hierarchy of importance. These considerations result in formal and stylistic differences in comparison to the West, and display alternatives in design.

The Chinese have used stone, brick and wood for centuries. The Great Wall, begun in the 5th century BCE, was intended to keep nomadic invaders out of Northern China. The stone wall covers 5500 miles in its entirety. The rigid material takes on a more flexible appearance as it conforms to the contours of the landscape surrounding it. Notice in the image below the use of arches in the towers.

   

The Great Wall, China. Begun 5th century BCE. Stone. Image licensed Reinhold Möller, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons. Links to an external site.(r) Li Chun, Zhaozhou Bridge, China. Stone. 595 CE. Image in the Public Domain.

The Zhaozhou Bridge is an example of efficient design and flawless craftsmanship with materials. Built in 595 CE, it uses stone barrel vaults and arches to gracefully span the Xaio River. Today it is the oldest standing bridge in China. This stone bridge over the Jiao River is the result of the work of the Sui engineer Li Chun. Its construction is indeed unusual, and no one knows on what principle he made it. But let us observe his marvelous use of stonework. Its convexity is so smooth, and the wedge-shaped stones fit together so perfectly... How lofty is the flying-arch! How large is the opening, yet without piers! Precise indeed are the cross-bondings and joints between the stones, masonry blocks delicately interlocking like mill wheels, or like the walls of wells; a hundred forms (organized into) one. And besides the mortar in the crevices there are slender-waist iron cramps to bind the stones together. The four small arches inserted, on either side two, break the anger of the roaring floods, and protect the bridge mightily. Such a masterwork could never have been achieved if this man had not applied his genius to the building of a work which would last for centuries to come. 

Hall of Divine Might, located in the Forbidden City, Beijing.  Image by Jacob Ehnmark, CC- Links to an external site. 2.0 Generic Links to an external site.

Though Chinese stonemason work is celebrated for its preciseness and ingenuity, the use of wood as a primary construction material is the hallmark of traditional Chinese architecture. Wooden timber, usually large trimmed logs, are used as load-bearing columns and lateral beams for framing buildings and supporting the roofs. These structural timbers are prominently displayed in finished structures. It’s not known how the ancient builders raised the huge wooden columns into position. Columns and roof sections were joined together in mortise and tenon Links to an external site. joints without the use of glue or nails.

One innovation developed in Chinese architecture is the cantilever – an extension or overhang without exterior bracing. This was made possible by using brackets or dougong – triangular braces that help support heavy loads at the corners. The Chinese engineered the cantilever and bracket system to provide buildings with sweeping roof overhangs that commonly turn upwards at the corners. Cantilevered roofs appear to float above the main structure and reinforce the focus on a horizontal symmetry. The Hall of Divine Might, located in the Forbidden City Links to an external site. in Beijing, China exemplifies this design characteristic.

Chinese architecture influenced all of East Asian design over hundreds of years. The same elements and characteristics can be seen in traditional architecture from Japan, the Koreas and Vietnam. 

Decoration is implicit in Chinese architecture. Bright colors and intricate designs dominate many traditional buildings and enhance the look of exposed timbers. The Sagami Temple in Japan (below) uses elaborate decoration to intensify the visual effect of a complex corner structure of brackets and overhangs.

 

Cross Cultural Influences

As overland and marine trade routes expanded between Eastern and Western civilizations so did the influence of cultural styles in architecture, religion and commerce. The most important of these passages was the Silk Road, a system of routes that developed over hundreds of years across the European and Asian continents. Along this route are buildings that show cross-cultural influences in their design. One in particular is the Hazrat Mian Mir Tomb Links to an external site. in Lahore, Pakistan. Completed around 1635 CE, the structure shows characteristics of Chinese design in the cantilevered roof, terraced dome and sectioned facades. Islamic features include tripartite arches and geometric decorative tiles.

Silk Road Map.Source: Wikipedia. Licensed through Creative Commons. 

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem offers different cultural influences manifest in one building: a classic Greek colonnade at the main entrance, the gold dome and central turret supporting it, western style arches and colorful Islamic surface embellishment.

   

(l) Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount, Jerusalem. 5th century CE. Photo by David Baum. Licensed through Creative Commons. (r) Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, wall detail. Image: Wayne McLean. Licensed through Creative Commons. 

The Louvre Palace Links to an external site. in Paris, once the official royal residence and now one of the world’s biggest museums, had its beginnings in the 12th century but didn’t achieve its present form until recently. The building’s style is French Renaissance – marked by a formal symmetry, horizontal stability and restrained ornamentation. The Louvre executive board chose architect I. M. Pei Links to an external site.’s glass pyramid design as the defining element for the new main entry in 1989. The choice was a great success: the pyramid further defines the public space above ground and gives natural light and a sense of openness to the underground lobby beneath it.

M. Pei, The Louvre Pyramid, 1989. Image licensed through Creative Commons.

  

ARCHITECTURE & THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Beginning in the 18th century the Industrial Revolution made fundamental changes in agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and housing. Architecture changed in response to the new industrial landscape. Prior to the late 19th century, the weight of a multistory building had to be supported principally by the strength of its walls. The taller the building, the more strain this placed on the lower sections. Since there were clear engineering limits to the weight such load-bearing walls could sustain, large designs meant massively thick walls on the ground floors, and definite limits on the building's height. 

Forged iron and milled steel began to replace wood, brick and stone as primary materials for large buildings.

The Crystal Palace

The Crystal Palace, an iconic symbol of Victorian innovation and ambition, was a marvel of 19th-century architecture and engineering. Designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, the Crystal Palace was constructed to house the Great Exhibition of 1851, a groundbreaking event that showcased the industrial achievements of the era and heralded a new age of technological progress and global connectivity.

William Paxton, Crystal Palace, 1851. Hyde Park, London (Public Domain)

The Crystal Palace was revolutionary in its design, employing prefabricated iron and glass components that allowed for rapid assembly and disassembly. Measuring 1,848 feet (563 meters) in length and 408 feet (124 meters) in width, the structure covered 19 acres and incorporated over 990,000 square feet of glass. Its modular construction, featuring Paxton's patented ridge-and-furrow roofing system, was inspired by greenhouse technology, reflecting Paxton's background in horticulture.

Held in London's Hyde Park, the Great Exhibition was conceived by Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, as a means to celebrate industrial achievements and foster international trade and collaboration. The event attracted over six million visitors and displayed more than 100,000 objects from around the world, ranging from machinery and raw materials to fine arts and manufactured goods.

After the exhibition, the Crystal Palace was dismantled and rebuilt in Sydenham, South London, where it continued to serve as a venue for cultural and educational events until its destruction by fire in 1936. The Crystal Palace's influence extended beyond its physical presence. It inspired subsequent world's fairs and exhibitions, contributing to the development of modern exhibition design and public architecture. Its legacy can be seen in the continued tradition of world's fairs and the use of glass and steel in contemporary architecture.

 

Eiffel Tower
This change is encapsulated in the Eiffel Tower built in 1889. Standing on four huge arched legs, the iron lattice tower rises narrowly to just over 1000 feet high. When I visited the tower I was surprised to find a wooden railing at the top (supported by iron bars) and carved with innumerable names! The Eiffel Tower not only became an icon for France but for industry itself – heralding a new age in materials, design and construction methods.

 

(l) Gustave Eiffel, The Eiffel Tower, 1889. Iron, wood and glass, Paris. Image licensed through Creative Commons. (r) Rebar Tying. Photo by Hardscarf, CC BY-SA 4.0 Links to an external site.

 In America, the development of cheap, versatile steel in the second half of the 19th century helped change the urban landscape. The country was in the midst of rapid social and economic growth that made for great opportunities in architectural design. A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called out for new, larger buildings. By the middle of the 19th century downtown areas in big cities began to transform themselves with new roads and buildings to accommodate the growth. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid 1880s.

Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand tension, and steel framing was set into foundations of reinforced concrete, concrete poured around a grid of steel rods (re-bar) or other matrices to increase tensile strength in foundations, columns and vertical slabs. 

The people in Midwestern America felt less social pressure to conform to the ways and styles of the architectural past. By assembling a framework of steel girders, architects and builders could suddenly create tall, slender buildings with a strong steel skeleton. The rest of the building's elements — the walls, floors, ceilings, and windows were suspended from the load-bearing steel. This new way of constructing buildings, so-called "column-frame" construction, pushed them up rather than out. Building design in major urban centers now placed a premium on vertical space. Like the flying buttress of the 14th century, the steel weight-bearing frame allowed not just for taller buildings, but much larger windows, which meant more daylight reaching interior spaces. Interior walls became thinner creating more usable floor space.

       

 Both photos: Louis Sullivan, The Prudential Building (Also known as the Guaranty Building), 1894, Buffalo, NY. Photo: Jack E. Boucher.
Collection Historic American Buildings Survey, National Archives, Library of Congress.

Because steel framing had no precedent, its use would rewrite the rules of design and engineering of large buildings and along with them a new formal aesthetic. Architect Louis Sullivan’s twelve-story Prudential Building in Buffalo New York is an early example of column framing. Built in 1894, its tall, sleek brick veneer walls, large windows and gently curved top pediment ushers in a new century with the modern style of the skyscraper. 

For all of its new technology and design innovations, The Prudential Building still holds some forms from the past. A large arch hovers over the main entrance and the brick façade has extensive ornamentation.

Modern Architecture and the International Style

The International Style in architecture emerged in the 1920s and 1930s, characterized by its emphasis on volume over mass, use of industrial materials, and rejection of ornamentation. Architects like Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Walter Gropius promoted designs with clean lines, open spaces, and a minimalist aesthetic.

Lever House, Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill. New York. 1952. Photo by Elisa.rolle, CC BY-SA 4.0 Links to an external site., via Wikimedia Commons

A key principle was its lack of identifiable cultural or national characteristics, aiming for a modern, global perspective that transcended local styles. This approach sought to create universally recognizable and functional buildings.

The International Style reflected post-World War II ideals of internationalism, modernization, and a break from the past. In the post-war era, there was a strong desire to rebuild with a focus on rationalism, progress, and a shared global identity. The minimalist, functional designs of the International Style embodied these ideals, promoting social and economic efficiency and a sense of unity in the built environment, mirroring the broader cultural and political shifts of the time.

 

POST MODERN & CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE

Postmodern architecture emerged in the late 20th century as a reaction against the modernist International Style, which was seen as overly rigid and bland. While modernism focused on simplicity, functionality, and a lack of ornamentation, postmodernism sought to reintroduce variety, complexity, and historical reference into architectural design. Postmodern architects rejected the formalism and austerity of modernism, favoring a more eclectic and playful approach.

This new style embraced ornamentation, color, and a mix of different architectural elements and historical styles. It often included irony and humor, with buildings that featured unexpected forms and decorative details. Architects such as Robert Venturi and Michael Graves were prominent figures in this movement, advocating for designs that were more human, engaging, and contextually aware.

Postmodern architecture celebrated diversity and complexity, opposing the homogenized and impersonal nature of modernist designs. It aimed to create buildings that were visually interesting and culturally resonant, often incorporating local traditions and historical references. This style reflected a broader cultural shift towards pluralism and a questioning of established norms, ultimately seeking to create a richer and more varied built environment.

 

Michael Graves, Portland Municipal Services Building, 1982, Portland, Oregon. Image by Steve Morgan, licensed through Creative Commons. Seattle Washington urban skyline. Photo: Christopher Gildow
Used with permission. 

Michael Graves’s Portland Building from 1982 personifies the idea behind postmodernist thought. A reference to more traditional style is evident in the patterned column-like sections. Overt large-scale decorative elements are built into and onto the exterior walls, and contrasts between materials, colors and forms give the building a graphic sense of visual wit. Postmodern design has a more subtle but identifiable presence in some large skyscrapers. Look at any major city’s central skyline and see if you can’t pick out the different styles.

 

We can see how architecture is actively evolving in the contemporary work of Frank Gehry and Zaha Hadid Links to an external site.. Gehry’s work is famous for its rolling and bent organic forms. His gestural, erratic sketches Links to an external site. are transformed into buildings through a computer aided design process (CAD). They have roots in postmodernism but lean towards a completely new modern style. They have as much to do with sculpture as they do with architecture. Seattle’s Experience Music Project is an example of the complexity that goes into his designs. Its curves, ripples and folds roll across space and the multi-colored titanium panels adorning the exterior accentuate the effect. It’s even designed for a monorail train to run through it!

    

Frank Gehry, The Experience Music Project, 2000. Seattle Washington. Detail of the west façade with the monorail passing through.
Image: Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.  Zaha Hadid, Norpark Rail Station, Innsbruck, Austria. 2004-2007. Image: Hafelekar.
Licensed through Creative Commons. 

Hadid’s designs use soft and hard geometry with lots of cantilever and strong sculptural quality. In 2004 Hadid became the first female recipient of the Pritzker Architecture Prize Links to an external site., architecture's equivalent of the Nobel Prize. Her work defines and influences architectural style in the 21st century. For example, her design for an inclined rail station in Innsbruck, Austria is futuristic, balancing abstract forms and ornament with utility.

GREEN ARCHITECTURE

In the last decade there has emerged a strong interest in developing “green” architecture – designs that incorporate ecologically and environmentally sustainable practices in site preparation, materials, energy use and waste systems. Some are simple: buildings oriented to the south or west helps with passive solar heating. Others are more complex: Solar voltaic cells on the roof to generate power to the building. Green roofs are made of sod and other organic material and act as a cooling agent and recycle rainwater too. In addition, technological innovations in lighting, heating and cooling systems have made them more efficient.

A branch of the Seattle Public Library uses green design. A glass curtain wall on the north side makes use of natural lighting. Overhanging wooden roof beams shades harsh light. The whole structure is nestled under a green roof of sod and over 18,000 low water use plants. Seven skylights on the roof provide more natural lighting.

     

(l) Bohlin Cywinski Jackson Architects, Ballard Branch, Seattle Public Library. 2005. Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.  (r) “Green” roof, Ballard branch, Seattle Public Library, with skylights. Image: Christopher Gildow. Used with permission. 

And the California Academy of Sciences building in San Francisco harbors a living roof Links to an external site.. Click on the hyperlink to view a short video and explore how it works.

The Jean Marie Tjibaou Cultural Center Links to an external site. on the island of New Caledonia in the South Pacific captures the prevailing winds in sail-like structures that disperse it to the building’s interior as passive ventilation. Architect Renzo Piano Links to an external site.’s design is influenced by the indigenous tribal culture of the island.

 

Renzo Piano, Tjibaou Cultural Center, New Caledonia. 1998. Detail showing wind filter. Image: Fanny Schertzer. Licensed through Creative Commons 

Architecture is an art form that reflects how we present ourselves across the earth’s landscape, and, like other expressive mediums, it changes with styles, technologies and cultural adaptations. Architecture not only provides worldly needs of shelter, workspace and storage but also represents human ideals in buildings like courthouses and government buildings and manifestations of the spirit in churches and cathedrals. Traditional architecture has survived over thousands of years in one form or another, while contemporary design offers new approaches in how we use materials and technology to shape the look of our environment.

 

In this module we discussed the following:

• the basic techniques of drawing, painting, photography, and printmaking;
• additive and subtractive sculpture techniques;
• methods and materials in building design;
• techniques and challenges of film and video;
• and the growing impact of computers and digital tools on art making.

The creative process is a kind of critical thinking (Sayre, 3). It involves visual research, trial and error, being open to new information, evaluating results, and being self-critical. The medium or mixed-media are the raw materials that an artist uses to make their idea come to life.

Each medium has its own unique visual effects or characteristics. In the viewer context we read these unique visual effects and draw specific meanings from them. Photography, for example, has the ability to render a selection of life in such realistic detail that it is used in non-artistic practices for evidence collection. Even though Photoshop has become part of our vernacular in the Western world, and we know photographs can be manipulated, if we were to see a photograph of a courtroom scene our first inclination would be that it is a factual record of that moment, as opposed to an artist’s drawn rendering, which has a very different set of visual effects.

 

• CC licensed content, Original
• CC Licensed Content, Changes made to previously shared content
  • Authored by: Lumen Learning and Wendy Riley. License: CC BY: Attribution Links to an external site.
  • Authored by: Christopher Gildow. Located at: Links to an external site.https://learn.canvas.net/courses/24/modules#module_19 Links to an external site.. Project: Open Course Library. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Links to an external site.

Works Cited:

Needham, Joseph. The Shorter Science and Civilization in China. Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0521292867 Links to an external site.. Pages 145-147.